Comparative Evaluation of Physical Resilience, Connection with Nature, and Climatic Adaptability Indicators in the Architecture of First Pahlavi-Era Residential Houses (Case Studies: Ghaffari and Hakkak Houses, Kerman City, Iran)

Eskandari, Hamid

doi:10.22034/ijumes.2025.733079

Comparative Evaluation of Physical Resilience, Connection with Nature, and Climatic Adaptability Indicators in the Architecture of First Pahlavi-Era Residential Houses (Case Studies: Ghaffari and Hakkak Houses, Kerman City, Iran)

Document Type : Case Study

Author

Hamid Eskandari

Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Technical and Engineering, Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran

10.22034/ijumes.2025.733079

Abstract

This study investigates residential architecture of the First Pahlavi era in the city of Kerman, examining the degree of climatic adaptability and built-form resilience within the city’s cold semi-arid climate context. Given the growing importance of reinterpreting indigenous knowledge in addressing contemporary climate challenges, the primary objective of this research is a comparative evaluation of three indicators, physical resilience, connection to nature, and climatic adaptability in two representative case studies: the Ghaffari and Hakkak Houses located within the historic urban fabric of Kerman. In terms of purpose, the research is applied, and methodologically it adopts a descriptive–analytical and comparative approach conducted through multiple case studies. Data were collected through documentary sources, field surveys, and a researcher-developed questionnaire. Indicator evaluation was carried out based on expert judgment from specialists in architecture and climate-responsive architecture. Data analysis employed descriptive statistics and structural equation modeling using the Partial Least Squares approach to examine the relationships among indicators and their level of realization in each case. The findings show that both houses follow an introverted central courtyard typology and utilize indigenous materials with high thermal mass. However, the Ghaffari House demonstrates a higher level of climatic adaptability and stronger coherence between spatial organization and climatic design strategies. The results indicate that the effectiveness of First Pahlavi-era residential architecture in climate response depended on maintaining a balance between continuity of indigenous spatial logic and modern built-form transformations. Reinterpreting these architectural experiences can inform and inspire contemporary sustainable design practices.

Keywords

Climatic adaptability

connection to nature

first Pahlavi era

Kerman city

physical resilience

residential architecture

· Abro, R.S. Recognition of passive cooling techniques. Renew. Energy 1994, 5, 1143–1146.

· Aslipour, H., & Sharifzadeh, F. (2015). Environmental policy strategies in the country within the framework of conventional public decision-making theories. Majles and Strategy, 22(83), 245–271.

· Bamrinejad, F., Keshtkar, A. R., Karim-Pour Reyhan, M., & Afzali, A. (2019). Applying climatic indicators to determine tourism-prone areas in Kerman Province. Journal of Geography and Environmental Planning, 30(3). https://civilica.com/doc/1199196

· Chavoshizadeh, F., Asilian, H., & Sajjadzadeh, F. (2015). Climatic design strategies in traditional architecture. In 12th National Conference on Civil Engineering and Architecture with Focus on Sustainable Development, Yazd.

· Cyrus, Z. (2014) “Climatic Influence of the Soul of the World”. In the National Conference of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Urban Development,. (In Persian)

· Dunn, R. R., Kirby, K. R., Bowern, C., Ember, C. R., Gray, R. D., McCarter, J., Kavanagh, P. H., Trautwein, M., Nichols, L. M., Gavin, M. C., & Botero, C. (2024). Climate, climate change and the global diversity of human houses. Evol Hum Sci, 6, e24. https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2024.5

· Farahbakhsh, M., Hanachi, P., & Ghannai, M. (2017). Typology of historical houses in the old texture of Mashhad from early Qajar to late Pahlavi I. Iranian Architectural Studies, 6(12), 97–116. https://sid.ir/paper/219450/fa

· Fathy, H. Natural Energy and Vernacular Architecture: Principles and Examples with Reference to Hot and Arid Climates; The University of Chicago Press, Ltd.: London, UK, 1986

· Haeri Mazandaran, M. R. (2009). House, culture, nature: A study of historical and contemporary houses to develop design processes and criteria. Tehran, Iran: Urban Planning and Architecture Research Center.

· Heydarnejad, V., & Ahmadi, S. (2019). Analysis of spatial relationships in rural houses based on socio-cultural perspective (Case study: Kouhpar Village). Housing and Rural Environment, 38(166), 19–34. https://sid.ir/paper/186077/fa

· Hyde, R. (2000). Climate responsive design: A study of buildings in moderate and hot humid climates. E & FN Spon / Taylor & Francis.

· Kasmai, M. (2003). Climate and architecture. Khak Publishing.

· Kokurina, Hanna. (2006), Influences of acculturation on house form as Reflected in a Russian immigrant group in the United State, A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Interior Design, Washangton State University, Department of Interior Design, USA: Washangto

· Meir, I. A., Pearlmutter, D., & Etzion, Y. (1995). On the microclimatic behavior of two semi-enclosed attached courtyards in the hot dry region. Building and Environment, 30(4), 563–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/0360-1323(94)00079-K

· Memarian, G.H.; Brown, F. The shared characteristics of Iranian and Arab courtyard houses. Court. Hous. Past Present Future 2006, 1, 21–30.

· Razmara, H. A., & Moftakham, L. P. (Eds.). (2003). Geographical culture of Iran: Dictionary of Iranian settlements (Vols. 1–10). Tehran, Iran: [Publisher]. http://ketabnak.com

· Rapoport, A. (1969). House form and culture. Prentice-Hall. https://pdfcoffee.com/house-form-and-culture-pdf-free.html

· Shah-Timouri, Y., & Mazaherian, H. (2012). Design guidelines for new structures in historical contexts. Journal of Fine Arts: Architecture and Urban Planning, 17(4), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.22059/jfaup.2012.36363

· Soleymanpour, R.; Parsaee, N.; Banaei, M. Climate Comfort Comparison of Vernacular and Contemporary Houses of Iran. In Proceedings of the Asian Confrence on Environment-Behaviour Studies, AcE-Bs2015, Tehran, Iran, 20–22 February 2015; pp. 49–61.

· Taheri Sarmad, F., & Karami, A. (2024). Analysis of privacy hierarchies in traditional houses of Iran based on the plan structure through space syntax approach. ArmanShahr, 17(47), 17–31. https://www.sid.ir/paper/1473751/en

· Urban Planning and Architecture Research Center –(2005). UARC. (n.d.).

· Valizadeh Oghani, M. B., & Moahidi, N. (2017). Comfort in the house: A case study of Behnam Historical House, Tabriz. Green Architecture Quarterly, 3(9). https://civilica.com/doc/764045

· Watson, D., & Labs, K. (1983). Climatic design: Energy efficient building principles and practices. McGraw Hill. https://books.google.com/books/about/Climatic_Design.html?id=6URSAAAAMAAJ