The Role of Water and Traditional Water Supply Systems in Shaping the Howzkhane of Qajar Houses in Shiraz and Isfahan: A Comparative Architectural Analysis

Sarparast, Abaseh; Saghaei, Farnoosh; Ghasemi Sichani, Maryam; Salehpour Servak, Zarir

doi:10.22034/ijumes.2026.2091144.1369

The Role of Water and Traditional Water Supply Systems in Shaping the Howzkhane of Qajar Houses in Shiraz and Isfahan: A Comparative Architectural Analysis

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

Abaseh Sarparast ¹

Farnoosh Saghaei ²

Maryam Ghasemi Sichani ³

Zarir Salehpour Servak ⁴

¹ Department of Architecture, Yas.C., Islamic Azad University, Yasuj, Iran

² Department of Architecture and Urban Development ,Shi.C.,Islamic Aad University ,Shiraz,Iran

³ Department of Architecture and Urban Development ,Kho.C.,Islamic Aad University ,Esfahan,Iran

⁴ Department of Architecture and Urban Development ,Yas.C.,Islamic Azad University ,Yasuj,Iran

10.22034/ijumes.2026.2091144.1369

Abstract

Water constitutes one of the most structurally decisive elements in the architecture of traditional Iranian domestic spaces, operating simultaneously across functional, climatic, symbolic, and spatial-organisational registers. In Qajar-period houses of Shiraz and Isfahan two climatically similar yet morphologically distinct historic cities of central and southern Iran water achieved its most architecturally refined expression through the institution of the howzkhane: a semi-subterranean, vaulted water chamber positioned at the intersection of the house's principal spatial axes. This study undertakes a systematic comparative architectural analysis of the howzkhane as a typologically and tectonically specific water space, examining its relationship to traditional water supply systems (qanats, wells, and internal hydraulic networks) and its role in mediating spatial organisation, bioclimatic performance, and cultural meaning in Qajar domestic architecture. The research adopts a qualitative, descriptive-analytical methodology, combining documentary and library-based data collection with field observation and spatial analysis of selected exemplary houses. Following a systematic review of theoretical and historical foundations, a comparative analytical framework of twenty candidate architectural dimensions was developed and progressively refined through expert consultation employing the Fuzzy Delphi Method (FDM) with a fourteen-member panel over four sequential rounds, applying escalating consensus thresholds (2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0 on a five-point Likert scale) and reducing the candidate set from twenty to fifteen, twelve, ten, and confirming ten validated comparative dimensions. Expert consensus was confirmed by Kendall's coefficient of concordance, reaching 0.781 in the final round.

Graphical Abstract

The Role of Water and Traditional Water Supply Systems in Shaping the Howzkhane of Qajar Houses in Shiraz and Isfahan: A Comparative Architectural Analysis

Highlights

· The howzkhaneh is reframed as the domestic terminus of an urban hydraulic system, not an isolated type.

· A typo-morphological comparison isolates water-supply regime as the formative architectural variable.

· Shiraz's intermittent qanat supply yields deeper, evaporative, ornate howzkhaneh chambers.

· Isfahan's continuous Mādi flow yields shallower chambers integrated with open-channel hydrology.

· Matching built form to available water offers a principle for sustainable design under scarcity.

Keywords

Comparative architectural analysis

Howzkhaneh

Isfahan

Mādi

Qajar architecture

Qanat

Shiraz

traditional water-supply systems

· Ardalan, N., & Bakhtiar, L. (1973). The sense of unity: The Sufi tradition in Persian architecture. University of Chicago Press.

· Beaumont, P. (1971). Qanat systems in Iran. Bulletin of the International Association of Scientific Hydrology, 16(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667109493031

· Wonders, W. C. (1979). LOG DWELLINGS IN CANADIAN FOLK ARCHITECTURE. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 69(2), 187–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1979.tb01251.x

· English, P. W. (1968). The origin and spread of qanats in the Old World. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 112(3), 170–181.

· Esmaeilpour, A., Islami, S. Y., & Ghadami, F. (2025). Water Lost: Revisiting the Significance of Water in Iranian Architecture. Preprints. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202503.0698.v1

· Fadaei, A., & Esfanjary, E. (2017). The role of water in the formation of the historic urban landscape of Isfahan. International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 11(8), 1117–1129.

· Faghih, N., & Sadeghy, A. (2012). Persian gardens and landscapes. Architectural Design, 82(3), 38–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/ad.1403

· Farahbakhsh, M., Hanachi, P., & Ghanaei, M. (2018). Typology of historical houses in the old city fabric of Mashhad, from the early Qajar to the late Pahlavi I era. Journal of Iranian Architecture Studies, 6(12), 97–116.

· Foruzanmehr, A. (2018). Thermal comfort in hot dry climates: Traditional dwellings in Iran. Routledge.

· Ghobadian, V. (1998). Climatic analysis of the traditional Iranian buildings. University of Tehran Press. [In Persian]

· Goblot, H. (1979). Les qanats: Une technique d'acquisition de l'eau. Mouton.

· Haeri, M. R. (2009). House in culture and nature of Iran. Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. [In Persian]

· Simmons, I.G. (2014) Creating dry land in S.E. Lindsey (Lincolnshire, England) before ad 1550. Water Hist 6, 211–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12685-014-0102-x

· KeyNezhad, Z., Mokhtari Keshavar, M., Maleki, A., & Shahbazi, Y. (2023). Investigating the role of water in the howzkhaneh of traditional cold-climate houses on the thermal comfort of residents. Culture of Islamic Architecture and Urbanism Journal, 8(1), 53–64.

· Lambton, A. K. S. (1989). Qanats and irrigation in Persia. In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Columbia University.

· Mahmoudi Zarandi, M. (2016). The role of water in traditional Iranian houses. International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development, 6(2), 5–14.

· Memarian, G. H. (2008). Houses typology in Iran: With special reference to the courtyard house. Iran University of Science and Technology Press. [In Persian]

· Memarian, G. H., & Brown, F. E. (2006). The shared characteristics of Iranian and Arab courtyard houses. In B. Edwards et al. (Eds.), Courtyard housing: Past, present and future (pp. 21–30). Taylor & Francis.

· Mohammadi, A., & Saghafi, M. R. (2017). The howzkhaneh as a sustainable cooling space in traditional Iranian architecture. Journal of Building Engineering, 13, 127–135.

· Zhou, X., Antonini, E., & Gaspari, J. (2025). Impact of Courtyard Microclimate on Building Thermal Performance Under Hot Weather Conditions: A Review. Energies, 18(20), 5433. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18205433

· Cheng, Y., Liu, X., Zeng Z., Liu S., Wang, Z., Tang, X., He B-J (2022) Impacts of water bodies on microclimates and outdoor thermal comfort: implications for sustainable rural revitalization. Front Environ Sci 10:940482

· Hasehzadeh Haseh R, Khakzand M, Ojaghlou M (2018) Optimal thermal characteristics of the courtyard in the hot and arid climate of Isfahan. Buildings 8(12):166

· Pirnia, M. K. (2008). Introduction to Islamic architecture of Iran. Soroush-e Danesh. [In Persian]

· Pope, A. U. (1965). Persian architecture. Thames & Hudson.

· Rajabi, M., & Mahdavinejad, M. (2019). The thermal performance of subterranean spaces in traditional Iranian houses. Sustainable Cities and Society, 51, 101724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101724

· Sahebzadeh, S., Heidari, A., Kamelnia, H., & Baghbani, A. (2017). Sustainability features of Iran's vernacular architecture. Sustainability, 9(5), 749. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9050749

· Soflaei, F., Shokouhian, M., & Shemirani, S. M. M. (2016). Traditional Iranian courtyards as microclimate modifiers. Frontiers of Architectural Research, 5(2), 225–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2016.02.002

· Soflaei, F., Shokouhian, M., & Zhu, W. (2017). Socio-environmental sustainability in traditional courtyard houses of Iran and China. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 69, 1147–1169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.130

· Soltanzadeh, H. and Soltanzadeh, A. 2017. Importance of Water and Its Elements in Persian Gardens. Manzar: The Scientific Journal of Landscape, No.38, pp. 6-17.

· Tavassoli, M. (2016). Urban structure and architecture in the hot-arid zone of Iran. Springer.

· Yazdi, A. A. S., & Khaneiki, M. L. (2017). Qanat knowledge: Construction and maintenance [In Persian]

· Zomarshidi, H. (2010). The architecture of water structures in historic Iran. Journal of Restoration and Architecture of Iran, 1(1), 1–16. [In Persian]